An Introduction to Literary Nonfiction

An Introduction to Literary Nonfiction Literary nonfiction is a type of prose that employs the literary techniques usually associated with fiction or poetry to report on persons, places, and events in the real world without altering facts. The genre of literary nonfiction, also known as creative nonfiction, is broad enough to include travel writing, nature writing, science writing, sports writing, biography, autobiography, memoir,interviews, and familiar and personal essays. Literary nonfiction is alive and well, but it is not without its critics. Examples Here are several examples of literary nonfiction from noted authors: The Cries of London, by Joseph AddisonDeath of a Soldier, by Louisa May AlcottA Glorious Resurrection, by Frederick DouglassThe San Francisco Earthquake, by Jack LondonThe Watercress Girl, by Henry Mayhew Observations The word literary masks all kinds of ideological concerns, all kinds of values, and is finally more a way of looking at a text, a way of reading...than an inherent property of a text.(Chris Anderson, Introduction: Literary Nonfiction and Composition in Literary Nonfiction: Theory, Criticism, Pedagogy)Fictional Devices in Literary NonfictionOne of the profound changes to have affected serious writing in recent years has been the spread of fiction and poetry techniques into literary nonfiction: the show, don’t tell requirement, the emphasis on concrete sensory detail and avoidance of abstraction, the use of recurrent imagery as symbolic motif, the taste for the present tense, even the employment of unreliable narrators. There has always been some crossover between the genres. I am no genre purist, and welcome the cross-pollination, and have dialogue scenes in my own personal essays (as did Addison and Steele). But it is one thing to accept using dialogue scenes or lyrical imager y in a personal narrative, and quite another to insist that every part of that narrative be rendered in scenes or concrete sensory descriptions. A previous workshop teacher had told one of my students, Creative non-fiction is the application of fictional devices to memory. With such narrow formulae, indifferent to nonfictions full range of options, is it any wonder that students have started to shy away from making analytical distinctions or writing reflective commentary?(Phillip Lopate, To Show and to Tell: The Craft of Literary Nonfiction) Practical Nonfiction vs. Literary NonfictionPractical nonfiction is designed to communicate information in circumstances where the quality of the writing is not considered as important as the content. Practical nonfiction appears mainly in popular magazines, newspaper Sunday supplements, feature articles, and in self-help and how-to books...Literary nonfiction puts emphasis on the precise and skilled use of words and tone, and the assumption that the reader is as intelligent as the writer. While information is included, insight about that information, presented with some originality, may predominate. Sometimes the subject of literary nonfiction may not at the onset be of great interest to the reader, but the character of the writing may lure the reader into that subject.Literary nonfiction appears in books, in some general magazines such as The New Yorker, Harpers, the Atlantic, Commentary, the New York Review of Books, in many so-called little or small-circulation magazines, in a fe w newspapers regularly and in some other newspapers from time to time, occasionally in a Sunday supplement, and in book review media.(Sol Stein, Stein on Writing: A Master Editor of Some of the Most Successful Writers of Our Century Shares His Craft Techniques and Strategies) Literary Nonfiction in the English DepartmentIt might be the case that composition studies...needs the category of literary nonfiction to assert its place in the hierarchy of discourse comprising the modern English department. As English departments became increasingly centered on the interpretation of texts, it became increasingly important for compositionists to identify texts of their own.(Douglas Hesse, The Recent Rise of Literary Nonfiction: A Cautionary Assay in Composition Theory for the Postmodern Classroom)Whether critics are arguing about contemporary American nonfiction for historical or theoretical purposes, one of the primary (overt and usually stated) aims is to persuade other critics to take literary nonfiction seriously- to grant it the status of poetry, drama, and fiction.(Mark Christopher Allister, Refiguring the Map of Sorrow: Nature Writing and Autobiography)

buy custom Ode to a Nightingale essay

buy custom Ode to a Nightingale essay The poem Ode to a Nightingale, by the poet John Keats with the other odes, is some of the most important achievements of his poetic history. These odes collectively put forward the ideal of romance and eternal love. The poem in particular is significant as it discusses the immortality of nature with the beauty of its creation, but it tries to reject the optimistic pursuit of pleasures that are found in other Keats poems. It is analyzed with reference to the ode in this article. Keats was one of the most popular poets of the early nineteenth century. He is responsible for the development of the Romanticism, which was a movement that espoused the sanctity of emotion and imagination, and privileged the beauty of the natural world. Many of ideas and themes evident in Keatss great odes are quintessentially Romantic concerns: the beauty of nature, the relation between imagination and creativity, the response of passions to beauty and sufferings, and the transience of human life in time p 8. Ode to a Nightingale was one of the most popular odes of John Keats considering he had written other very popular and well developed odes. The choice of a nightingale can be questioned, but the answer to that is a Greek legend which explains the evolution of the nightingale as a bird and how it is supposed to have a magical voice. Keats is considered an important patron of the Romanticism especially in Britain. If this is true, then this certainly is his masterpiece (Leeds 19). The poem Ode to a Nightingale gives the descriptions of series between reality and romantic ideal for union of nature. It is the existence of struggle between the real and ideal that have the antithesis of pain and pleasure. It is the sense of fulfilling the imagination and the fullness the performance change in humans and nature. He is addressing the nightingale in a forest as being an object of empathy and praise in the poem where it gets its name, Ode to a Nightingale. He is not envious of the nightingales happiness but is glad to share it with her. The discussion does not concern the bird and its song but the experience of humans, as the song signifies the complex image which is being formed by the interaction of voices of praise and empathy. There is a connection of the song to the music produced by the urn in Ode on a Grecian urn that was connected to the sculpture art. Thus, the nightingale has the representation of presence that is enchanting, which has a direct connection tom nature unlike in the urn. The natural beauty is lacking in the song as there is no true message, as he follows the belief of Coleridge by losing himself in the separation of the worl from the song. The previous depictions in the poem had the melancholic feels that is lacking in this happy songbird, which is the only voice in the poem. There is the highlight of desire for alcohol, and the speaker wants to get drunk and enjoy like the nightingale. The nightingales voice has the power of compelling the narrator in joining the song so that he forgets the world and its sorrow, but there is the guilt in regard to the toms and his brother death as held by the narrator (Leeds 19). Three is the representation to give up the troubles and problems associated with the human life to disappear from the world to the fantasy realm. He wants them to fade away so that he can enjoy and be like the nightingale, carefree and singing. The speaker detests the lack of permanent happiness as there is the idea of mortality associated with the human life depicted in phrases such as, youth grows pale, and specter-thin, and dies, and beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes. There is the narrators abandoning of his sense so that he can embrace the song by sharing darkness with it. The narrator is left wondering whether it was real vision or just a dream as he was left broken after the song ended. The poem is relying on the sleeping process that is always common to his poems as there is the sharing of themes. The nightingale is depicted to be mysterious with its disappearing at the end of the poem. It is the elusiveness the poem tries to emphasize in the dream image as the elements in the poem does not complete the nightingale and the self identification allowing only the self awareness. The poem has splits with the first trying to identify the bird, and the song and the other is the convergence of past with the present with the present experiences. This is the reminder of the progress of human and how the development of man is from the experience of wanting pleasure only for him to understand that pleasure and pain are mixtures of truth. The nightingale fly away, and the speaker fly with it in a drunk manner but through the poetry. He wants to glide away from the trouble of the human life and experience happiness of nature like the nightingale experiences. This are the moments of pleasure that do overwhelm an individual like drug with a short lasting experience of pleasure as the narrator is depicted as being left without pleasure as the body has the desire for it. Thus, the narrator has to hide in the poem because of loss of pleasure and does not want to embrace the truth. The pleasure asked by the narrator is not brought, but it is only liberating him from the des ires of pleasure. The fifth and sixth stanzas pay specific attention to this aspect of natures beauty and how it is fascinating forr the speaker. There is the progression of association that makes the feeling movements being at the mercy of the words that by chance were evoked. The acceptance to the loss of pleasure is the acceptance of life and later death as it is the constant theme of Keats poetry because of her exposure to it. Keats has been extremely popular for his odes and their multiple themes via these odes. Ode to a Nightingale is one of a kind. The poets speaker is involved in the exploration of themes regarding the creative expression and mortality of human life. Ode to a Nightingale seems to enlighten the reader with the method of the transience of life. Human life is not eternal, and man seems to keep growing old till the point when he/she dies. This theme of pleasure loss and the inevitable death is thus describing the inadequate pleasure and romantic escape to the worlds of beauty from the real world. Changes in the levels of life and mortality are displeasing as the speaker life young and beautiful like the si nging of a nightingale. The poem is depicting that humans are in search of the mystery in the unsuccessful quest for its light in the darkness, that only lead to increase in darkness, thus; their recognition of how impossible the mystery is to the mortals. The pleasure and death incorporation gives the poem a darker environment that connects the other poems to the imagination of demonic nature. The poem focuses on the immortality of nature when compared to the mortality of mankind. However, even if Nature has creatures that die and mortal nature in its essence never dies but continues forever. The bird has no consciousness as man has and, therefore, the nightingale is part of the nature and merges in its essence. This is the very aspect which causes the speaker to label the nightingale as immortal. The bird is certainly part of the nature of immortality. This is because the bird is not in conflict with its surrounding but merges in it. This is what is very different in mankind. The contrast that is made between the immortal bird and the mortal human has been made more acute by the imaginations effort which the poet has been eager to highlight John Keats has written a whole series of odes but what makes this one unique is the contrast between Nature and man. This stresses upon the Romanticism much effectively as for Nature there is no end, and it is immortal. Mankind in the other hand is restricted and with the competition they have and the lack of reconciliation makes a man a mortal being. Man can never compare himself with the greatness of Nature (Shmoop p10). Nonetheless , the Ode to a Nightingale is a well expressed love for Nature and John Keatss message is very clear for the reader. This is a very epic ode appreciated by critics. Buy custom "Ode to a Nightingale" essay

Give a history of the Catholic Church on the death penalty and note Research Paper - 3

Give a history of the Catholic Church on the death penalty and note how it has changed over time - Research Paper Example In the early stage, the catholic churches are considered to be the higher legal authorized body. During the middle ages, the people duly followed the pathway of churches. The Catholic Church is identified to follow capital punishment. However, presently, it has a strict negative statement about capital punishment. According to Catholic teaching, punishment is used against a crime with the aim of defending a society and in case of the failure of defending a society from such criminals, capital punishment should be used (Uelmen 355-356). The prime intention of the study is to reveal the role of the Roman Catholic churches towards providing judgment against a punishment. Apart from this, the study describes about the importance of churches for sentencing capital punishment. Contextually, the study will also reveal the transaction of the traditional Catholic Church in the present day context. The term capital punishment is accustomed and well known in the society. Capital punishment is also ascertained as death penalty in several countries. The law or the rule of death penalty was established during the period of 18th century B.C. The law of death penalty was introduced by Hammurabi, King of Babylon. Death penalty was introduced by King Hammurabi for different crimes and offences. Apart from this, death penalty was also followed during the 14th century by different legal bodies and churches. Besides that, Britain also established the law of sentencing death penalty as a punishment to those people who are committing any criminal offences. With the inspiration from Britain in providing the capital punishment, America also follows the tradition of capital punishment. It is ascertained that America having the highest records in sentencing punishment through death penalty. It has been affirmed that during the middle ages when British people entered America for shelter, Americ ans brought the practices of

Theory final Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theory final - Assignment Example pp.19-25). The three theories differ in complexity and the concepts they put forward. Grand theories are comprehensive, middle-range theories have a middle view reality, and practice theory is on a narrow view of reality. The prepositions in grand theories are not always explicit, middle-range theories are whereas in the propositions are well defined. Grand theories are more general in terms of the setting; middle-range theories are more particular to practice areas, and practice theories are to special populations or an identified field of practice. The similarities that exist between the three approaches is that they all view nursing as a profession that involves administration of care. Also, all the theories are aimed at improving service delivery for the general well being of human beings (Koshar, n.d. pp.35-42). An interactive-integrative framework involves viewing phenomena as having multiple, interrelated parts in relation to a particular context. Virginia Henderson concepts of the nature of nursing will be most helpful. It describes the role of a nurse as that of facilitating the activities of a sick or well person that contribute to general health or recovery. The theory states that a nurse should help patients recover and regain independence as soon as possible. The nurse to fit into the shoes of patients so as to identify and relate to their actual needs. This theory will suit the workplace as the hospital is a centre for the senior citizens who need special attention and follow up. The theory will be helpful, therefore, in addressing the needs of the elderly in a more personalised manner (Fawcett, 2005). Roy’s six-step nursing process would be most appropriate for development of Marys care plan . The model was established via the concept of an open system for human beings. The concept can respond to environmental stimuli through the development of survival

Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder Essay Example for Free

Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder Essay One of the great things about being a human is having the sexual desire to be intimate with another person. Many consider having the passion for sexuality is the driving force behind human behavior, but for some, this passion is non-existent. The purpose of this essay is to examine sexual dysfunction, particularly a disorder called Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD). HSDD is the deficiency or the absence of sexual fantasies or the desire for sexual activity, which ultimately lead to distress or interpersonal difficulty amongst a person† (Maserejian et al. , 2010). Communication problems, anger, a lack of trust, connection and intimacy can all adversely affect a woman’s sexual response and interest (Burman 2001).† It is said sexual dysfunction is due to infrequent orgasms, low levels of arousal and sexual excitement (Basson 2006). In a relationship, it is normal behavior for women to engage in sex and to crave emotional closeness with their partner. In a study by Women’s Health across the Nation (SWAN), 6 cities in 6 countries were surveyed. It was found 40 percent of women reported they infrequently or never felt sexual desire (Basson 2006). It is evident there are many ways to look at the potential causes of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD). Throughout this paper, the following sources will be conversed; specifically the psychosocial state, which refers to the mind’s capability to develop and interrelate with a social environment. Traumatic incidents and emotional issues are two factors that can also be linked to sexual dysfunctions throughout adulthood. Studies show child abuse is one of the biggest factors that lead up to sexual dysfunction in adulthood. This abuse can be linked to dysfunctions physically, emotionally and intellectually to oneself. Along with child abuse, depression and anxiety most often become the outcome of such act, which are other factors that lead up to HSDD. Today, HSDD is under thorough research to conclude more defined answers for this disorder. Nonetheless, the purpose of this paper is to examine Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD) specifically the psychosocial causes such as anxiety, child abuse and depression. Having the lack of desire for intimacy can be caused by a person’s emotional state of mind. When a person has a negative view towards sex due to previous experiences, it heavily affects their outlook on sex in the long run. Anxiety occurs when a person is triggered by stress and those who are anxious usually â€Å"negative self-talk†, a habit of telling oneself the worst-case scenario. One who has HSDD feels a high form of anxiety towards sex due to insecurities or dysfunctions they feel anxious about. When one carries heavy anxiety towards sexuality and intimacy, it weakens their desire for sex. Self-esteem can be related to the development of anxiety. Moreover, traumatic incidents, sexual abuse and depression can also lead to the cause of HSDD. In a study done at a University at the Sexual Behavioral Clinics, several answers were found. In this case study, the sample size was 145 adults without sexual dysfunctions and 198 adults with sexual dysfunctions. All of these individuals were married heterosexual couples between the ages of 25-68 years of age (McCabe 2005). Researchers were able to categorize adults with sexual dysfunction into six groupings, these include: premature ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, male lack sexual desire, female inorgasmia, female lack of arousal, and female lack of sexual desire (McCabe 2005). Researchers hypothesize coital anxiety is the main result of sexual dysfunction with their partners. It is believed anxiety causes a damper on most spouses’ relationships due to constant fear on inability to perform sexually, which inevitably causes tension between couples due to anxiety (McCabe 2005). Throughout this study, it was also found that anxiety created depressive symptoms between sexuall y dysfunctional adults. A potential effect for the depressive symptoms lead to less satisfying sexual activities with a partner, causing individuals to turn to a more reliable way of pleasure, masturbation (McCabe 2005). All in all, high levels of anxiety can affect the intimacy of a relationship. More specifically, the constant fear focused on the inability to perform sexually or fear caused by past events causes strong tension between couples, which allows anxiety to grow. There is always room for research and McCabe (2005) believes more investigation on the effects of anxiety and HSDD can be done in order to fully understand the disorder. The events that take place during childhood inevitably shape a person in adulthood. One of the main causes for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder can be linked to a previous history of child abuse. Traumatic experiences as a child can strongly affect the psychosocial development of an individual. According to Webster Dictionary, Psychosocial is the relation between social conditions and mental health (Webster). Traumatic events during childhood can lead to a dysfunction called sexual desire disorder. Flashbacks of the event in childhood can occur for several years and continuously stay with the individual long term. A sexual desire disorder can frighten an individual in having any desire to be intimate or sexually active with anyone. A study conducted by Myriam S Denov (2004) examines individuals who were previous victims of sexual abuse as a child. This study involves a sample size of 14 victims, 7 male and 7 female. However, this sample size could potentially pose a threat to the external validity of this study because it represents individuals would only face female-perpetrated sexual abuse. The data was collected by several questions and interviews throughout a six-month period. Victims were consulted before screening in order to find the most precise answers. The aim of the study displays the long-term negative effects these victims carried after their traumatic experiences. Denov (2004) found that victims of childhood abuse were in less satisfying relationships with their partner sexually and emotionally. Respondents also reported long-term difficulties with substance abuse, self-injury, depression, strained relationships with partners and discomfort with sex (Denov 2004). Specifically with male respondents, common results for the study include arousal dysfunctions and fear of sex with women. Specifically for females, those who experienced childhood sexual abuse demonstrated lack of pleasure or satisfaction from sexual encounters (Denov 2004). It is evident childhood sexual abuse strongly effects adulthood developing a fear of sex, arousal dysfunctions, sexual inhibition and lack of pleasures by sexual encounters (Denov 2004). All in all, all these factors can strongly lead to a dissatisfying sexual relationship with a partner. Depression adversely affects every aspect of an individual’s life, including our relationships. When depression occurs between sexual encounters, it can heavily affect the relationship negatively (Lykins 2006). When one suffers depression, a lost of inte rest in sexual activities can occur and evidently minimizes a couple’s desire for intimacy (Lykins 2006). This can be shameful because intimacy, closeness and support can be therapeutic for an individual suffering depression. Some studies have linked depression with a decrease in sexual activity but others have reported an increase. In Lykins’ (2006) study, 663 females college-aged students answered questions regarding the effects of anxious and depressed mood on sexual interest and arousal. These respondents completed trait measures of sexual excitation and depression. It was discovered depressive symptoms tend to possess a greater desire in sexual activities for these women, mostly gearing towards masturbation (Lykins 2006). It was found that depressive symptoms lead to less satisfying sexual activities with an encounter. Moreover, respondents turned to masturbation because it was more reliable then pleasure. In this study, a variable discovered was that propensity for sexual excitation was the strongest predictor for women between depression and sex (Lykins 2006). Furthermore, depressive woman had the strongest tendency to perform risky and compulsive sexual behavior or develops sexual dysfunction. Along with this study, another sample were 339 college-aged men where some also developed depression throughout their adolescents. When men were compared to woman for those suffering in depression, men carried much stronger desires for sexual interest during these mood states. Unfortunately, there are a number of factors that limit the accuracy of this study. One of which those with clinical depression were not considered. Furthermore, to ensure reliability of the study, these issues can be looked further to ensure accuracy for this topic. As mentioned through this paper, there are numerous factors that could be linked to Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD). HSDD is the deficiency or the absence of sexual fantasies or the desire for sexual activity, which ultimately lead to distress or interpersonal difficulty among a person (Maserejian et al., 2010). This disorder can most certainly be a damper on relationships with a partner. Anxiety correlates to HSDD when the individual develops a fear of sexual relations and insecurities towards their sexual performance (McCabe, 2005). It is apparent child abuse is a huge factor which causes one to develop HSDD. Denov (2006) had found that traumatic events as a childhood can lead to dysfunctions and can lack sexual desires for any encounters. Additional research is needed to answer all questions between HSDD and depression. This evidently can help complete analysis and fill the gap between the two factors. An improvement that could be made within all the studies is bigger sample sizes in order to achieve more accurate information. A final suggestion for future and more precise research would be the effects of sexual desire in relation to males, as many of the studies are geared towards female participants. References: Basson, R. (2006). Sexual desire and arousal disorders in women. The new england journal o f medicine, 354, 1497-1506. Retrieved from http://www.obgyn.uab.edu/medicalstudents/obgyn/uasom/documents/September/SEX DYSF.pdf Berman , J. (2001). For women only: A revolutionary guide to reclaiming your sex life [. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Co. Denov, M. (2004). The long-term effects of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(10), 1137-1156. Retrieved from http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/19/10/1137.full.pdf html Maserejian, N. (2010). The presentation of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women. International Society for Sexual Medicine, 7(10), 3438-3448. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20646184 McCabe, M. (2005). The role of performance anxiety in the development and maintenance of sexual dysfunction in men and women. International journal of stress management, 12(4), 379-388. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/str/12/4/379.pdf Psychosocial. 2013. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved Feb 4, 2011, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/psychosocial

Meno - Shape :: essays research papers

"Shape is that which alone of existing things always follows color." "A shape is that which limits a solid; in a word, a shape is the limit of a solid." In the play Meno, written by Plato, there is a point in which Meno asks that Socrates give a definition of shape. In the end of it, Socrates is forced to give two separate definitions, for Meno considers the first to be foolish. As the two definitions are read and compared, one is forced to wonder which, if either of the two, is true, and if neither of them are true, which one has the most logic. When comparing the first definition of shape: "that which alone of existing things always follows color," to the second definition: "the limit of a solid", it can be seen that the difference in meaning between the two is great. Not only in the sense that the first is stated simply and can be defended easily, while the later is more difficult to comprehend and back up; but also in the sense that the second would have to involve the defiance of mathematical theories and/or proofs in order to stand true, while the first does not. It should also be noted that in the first def inition, the word "a" is never mentioned. Socrates is not making a statement about "a shape" or "a color", but about shape and color themselves. In the definition given to please Meno, Socrates' words are "a shape" and "a solid". It can be taken from earlier discussions in the play that the second definition is simply a definition of a shape, rather than a definition of shape in and of itself. In the simple sentence that Socrates originally gives to Meno, he has not given then definition of a shape, rather he has given the definition of the term shape. For example, if a person was asked what a triangle is, the response would most likely be that it is a shape, but shape would never be defined as shape itself. It is simply an object that falls under the category of shape. Therefore, in one sentence, Socrates has put a definition to shape, for without color there can be no shape, there could not even be a shape to fall under the category that would have once been known as "shape". None of the examples that Socrates and Meno discussed could prove the definition false.

Short Paper: Cultural Communication

Running Head: Short Paper Cultural Communication; Copyright (c) – Lopamudra Chakraborty – no portion of this article can be copied reproduced or distributed without prior authorization of the author. Author: Lopamudra(Lopa) Chakraborty M5A1: Short Paper Cultural Communication Business Communications 08/3/2012 Cultural Communication Introduction â€Å"The reasonable person adapts himself to the world, while the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. † – George Bernard Shaw Intercultural communication between people is an integral attribute of the human society development.The modern world is developing towards globalization. In this regard, the issues about the role and the place of international communication become an integral part of life both for the humankind in general, as well as for the individual (Shokina & Nishev, 2009). The art of business communication has evolved as globalization has set disparate businesses cultures of the world on a collision course. Emerging economies have begun to integrate the business cultures of traditional powerhouse nations into their businesses, and they have been leaving traces of their own culture wherever they go.The impact of cultural diversity on business communication has widespread implications–from corporate boardrooms to employee break-rooms–and small business owners can benefit from gaining an understanding of the eccentricities of all cultures to which they are exposed (Ingram, 2012). As mentioned by Hynes, it is extremely important to become familiar with intercultural business practices for three reasons. First, is the tremendous increases in international trade caused by vertical specialization or global supply chains.Second is the direct investment of foreign based companies. In the US, for example, the direct investment of foreign based companies grew from $9 billion in 1966 to more than $414 billion in 2008. A third reason to learn about intercultural business communication us the increasing likelihood that you will work with or for someone who is not a native born U. S. Citizen. According to the US Census Bereau, 13% of the workforce was a non- 2 Cultural Communication native US citizen in 2000 (Hynes, 2011). That number has increased dramatically in the last decade.These are some of the reasons that underline the importance of cross-cultural communications. With the advent of globalization, research on cross cultural organizational behavior has become a pathway to understand the dynamics of multicultural domestic and international workplaces. In fact successful organizations of the 21st century require leaders who understand culturally diverse work environment and can work effectively with different cultures that have varying work ethics, norms and business protocols (HR Magazine, SHRM, 2008).In addition, there are other world issues that enhances the importance of cross-cultural communication, for e. g. emergenc e of the digital age, ease and speed of international travel, formation and expansion of regional trade associations (like NAFTA, EU, GATT, ASEAN) and growth of international professional associations (Beaman, 2005). To become culturally competent, the first step is to have a solid understanding of one’s own values and how they shape the cultural identity. Within this process it is also important to realize that different culture exhibit different values.Cross cultural management researchers and theorist like Hofstede, Hall and Trompenaars have developed cultural value dimensions often within the realm of comparing national cultures (HR Magazine, SHRM, 2008). Countries like US who are heavily dependent on the global economy must understand their own culture and how it shapes their communication with other cultures. 3 Cultural Communication Purpose The purpose of this paper is to understand the US business communication protocol and how it affects the cross communication with other culture.In responding to this short paper on cultural communication, the attempt is to discuss and elaborate on the following factors: 1. What are some typical U. S. business communication protocols? 2. How would these protocols create challenges, for example, in communicating with someone from a collective culture? 3. What are recommendations you would offer for decreasing the potential of communication misunderstandings? Background In the past, it may have been commonplace for entrepreneurs and corporate managers to develop their own unique communication style for dealing with customers, business partners and suppliers.Today, however, managers must take the time to study the cultural eccentricities of their business counterparts before attempting to make contact with people in other countries or from other subcultures. The Texas oil tycoon, for example, has to understand that grabbing his Chinese partner's hand in a firm handshake is not a good idea but that a slight bow and smile are the appropriate form of greeting. Verbal communication and body language are more important than ever in international business dealings because innocent hand gestures, mannerisms or even posture can cause a rift between culturally diverse business partners.The diversity of culturally distinct managers has been melding slowly as globalization and Westernization give managers extensive experience in different cultures (Ingram, 2012). 4 Cultural Communication Globalization: ? The percent of the U. S. population that is foreign born has grown from 4. 8% in 1970 to 6. 2% in 1980 to 7. 9% in 1990 and over 9% in 2000 ( (Ferraro, 2002). ? The U. S. has the fourth largest Spanish-speaking population in the world. E. g. , More than 60% of the people in Miami speak Spanish as their first language (Ferraro, 2002). 60% of companies will increase their global presence in the coming three years (ADP Survey, 2002). ? A large number of corporations receive more than half of their sales f rom foreign markets. ? E. g. , Coca Cola sells more of its product in Japan than in the U. S. (Ferraro, 2002). Senior executives say that the ability to manage the business on a global basis is a top priority (ADP Survey, 2002). ? All of these changes are facilitating the cross border movement of people, goods, and data, bringing more and more cultures into contact with one another and increasing the potential for cross-cultural conflict. What is new about the global economy is the scale and the speed with which innovations, borrowings (maladies! ), etc. are spreading. Given this background, the purpose of this discussion is to highlight and explain some of the major cultural value dimensions in the United States and how it impacts when commutating with other cultures with differing business communication protocols. 5 Cultural Communication Findings Understanding what shapes US Business Communication protocol: There are several dimensions to the US business communication protocol.Th ese business communication protocols are shaped and formed by the Culture of the organization and of the society. â€Å"Domestic business organizations can be viewed as ‘mini-cultures’ (composed of different people with different roles, statuses, and value systems) that operate within the wider national context (Ferraro, 2002). † Culture is defined as a set of values and beliefs with learned behaviors shared within a particular society. Culture provides identity and belonging. Culture is everywhere starting from language to communication styles, history, religion, norms, values and symbolism (HR Magazine, SHRM, 2008).One of the most extensive studies of cultural differences was conducted by Geert Hofstede. Based on his findings, there are six major dimensions of national culture that are discussed below(Hynes, 2012). An understanding of these cultural dimensions is necessary to explain what shapes the US business communication protocols. Power Distance: Power dis tance indicates the extent to which a society accepts the fact the power in the institutions and organizations is distributed unequally (Hynes, 2011).Britain, Philippines and Mexico have high power distance where the managers and leaders are almost viewed like autocrats and there is a lot of disparity in power between higher and lower ranks. United States has a culture with low power distance. The manager is seen to have a little more power than the subordinate and is addressed by the first name, takes her place in the line and manages by communicating using an equalitarian communication strategy. 6 Cultural Communication Uncertainty Avoidance: Relates to the degree to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situation(Hynes , 2011).It tries to avoid uncertainties by having a strict formal rules and not allowing odd ideas or beliefs to prevail for example countries like Germany, England and Pakistan. United States have weak uncertainty avoidance and are open to ne w ideas and beliefs. Individualism/Collectivism: Individualism refers to a loose knit social framework in which people are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate family, example United States. Collectivism refers to a society with a tight social network where people are distinguished between in-groups and outgroups, example -.Japan, Masculinity/Feminity: expresses the extent to which dominant values in the society are masculine for example assertiveness, acquisition of money etc (Hynes, 2011). United States has a masculine type culture but Finland has a more feminine type culture. High Context/Low Context: First coined by Edward Hall, in a high context culture, communication is internalized and happens in the physical context or environment. Lot of importance is given to non-verbal communication. Japan and China are examples of High Context Culture.United States on the other hand has a low context culture where a lot of importance is given to the vebal cues and spok en words. Monochronic/Polychronic: In a monochromic culture such as United States Germany, times is valued as money and time is measured by the clock, multi tasking, be punctual and time management are valued in this culture. In a polychornic culture like India and Spain, time is linear and events are not measured by the clock. Punctuality is not of much importance in this culture. As you can imagine the frustration 7 Cultural Communication f a manager who does not understand this in United States dealing with someone in India when there is a project deadline to be met in a timely manner. Business Communication Protocol in the United States: ? Informal and Friendly communication: Since US has a low power distance type culture, communication in the workplace is typically informal and friendly. Employees refer to their managers by their first names. People tend to not wait to be introduced, will begin to speak with strangers as they stand in a queue, sit next to each other at an event , etc.Because if their informality and friendliness they appear to be pretty direct in their communication. When doing a business dealing or communicating with someone from high power distance type culture, the American has to be mindful of the fact that their informality is not perceived as rudeness. They have to be careful as not to cross the line. Following is an example of difference in communication between British and American. The British uses a more indirect approach to communication while the American uses a more direct approach (Beaman, 2005).American/British Differences (Source: the Navigator Jan/Feb 2003) ? ? ? ? ? ? American: â€Å"Jack will blow his top. † British: â€Å"Our chairman might tend to disagree. † American: â€Å"You’re talking bullshit. † British: â€Å"I’m not quite with you on that one. † American: â€Å"You gotta be kidding. † British: â€Å"Hm, that’s an interesting idea. † 8 Cultural Commu nication As is evident from the above example, both culture has a distinct approach so when an American is communicating with the British, they have to be careful as not coming across as rude. Meeting and Greeting – the American way: Americans usually prefers a strong handshake, a casual hello and use first name when introducing someone. Though handshake is a practice that is used across the world in a business setting, the pressure used may vary. The high pressure grip may be a positive thing for an American but may be too aggressive for an Asian. In a business meeting, an American is direct, assertive, giving and taking feedback is considered positive and they confront when necessary.However when dealing with a Japanese they have to realize that the later’s approach is indirect, they avoid confrontation and strive to develop harmonious and trusting business relationships. ? Dress: What is considered appropriate business attire varies by geographic region, day of the week and industry. In general, people in the East dress more formally, while people in the West are known for being a bit more casual. Executives usually dress formally regardless of which part of the country they are in. Casual Friday is common in many companies. High technology companies often wear casual clothes every day. Other non-verbal cues: With regards to space, Americans maintain a spatial distance of 4 feet with strangers. They should be aware that some Arab countries speak almost face-to-face which may feel like encroaching on a personnal space to an American. Americans belong to a low context type culture and more 9 Cultural Communication verbal and articulate than some of the other high-context cultures like Japan and China. This sometimes can be a challenge when communicating and understanding appropriate non-verbal communication. Americans do not like silence and try to fill it with small talk.Chinese or Japanese on the other hand appear shy as they don’t spea k out of turn. If an Asian is taking too long ot answer a question it is probably because they are thoughtful not because they do not know the answer. Americans do use certain gestures to supplement their verbal communication like OK, time out, wave etc. However they have to be aware that some gestures that have one meaning in America may have a complete different and sometimes negative connotation in another culture. A nod which may indicate no to an American may mean yes when done by an Indian.It is safe to stick with universal gestures and try to refrain from others if you are not sure what it means for the other culture. ? Language: A language’s vocabulary contains large numbers of words that reflect the technologies, occupations, and values important to the culture. Americans tend to use a lot of baseball colloquialism in their language. For example, â€Å"he threw me a curve ball,† â€Å"you are way off base,† â€Å"She fielded my question well,† â €Å"I want to touch all bases,† etc. Business need to be aware when certain languages are translated to another language, the entire meaning may change.For example, Chevrolet came out with a car â€Å"Nova† that they marketed in United States. The car sold well in the in so they decided to market it in Mexico. However the Ad campaign was a big failure there and they realized that the reason for that was Nova when translated to Spanish means â€Å"No go. (Beaman, 10 Cultural Communication 2005)† Understanding the appropriateness of translations when doing business with other cultures is very important. Recommendations To be a good intercultural communicator, one has to avoid some of the pitfalls mentioned above.Additionally, taking cognizance and imbibing the following practices will decrease communication misunderstanding. 1. Moving from Ethno-centrism to Ethno-relativism : This model was deisgned by Bennett. It simple means that one has to move away from denial , defensiveness and minimization (which are the three stages of ethnocentrism) to acceptance, adaptation and integration (ethno-relativism). 2. Non-Defensiveness – One has to be open to criticism and non-defensive about their culture to be a good intercultural communicator. 3.Curious and Brave: One has to be genuinely curious, brave and interested in knowing about other cultures. 4. Emphatic, Understanding and non-judgmental: It is possible ot be objective and open minded if you show these qualities. You cannot learn and be aware if you are not open minded or understanding. 5. Patience: Patience is one of the best virtues if you plan on being a good intercultural communicator. You cannot learn about another culture in one day and it is better to prepare yourself and be patient when you are trying to learn and communicate with another culture. . Genuinely personable: This cannot be faked. You really have to develop a liking for people of other culture (Hynes, 2011). 11 Cultura l Communication 7. Facilitation with language: If you plan on spending a lot of time communicating with other culture, it may be a good idea to try and learn the language. A good deal of communication is lost in translation. Sometimes taking the interest to learn the language shows to the person you are communicating with that you mean business and are genuinely interested in them.Conclusion The purpose of this paper was to discuss about why intercultural and cross cultural communication was important, the cultural dimensions that shapes the US business communication protocols, how it impacts us when communicating with other culture and recommendation of improving communication misunderstanding. The paper touched upon factors like globalization which was one of the main reason intercultural communications was important. When discussing culture, the paper discussed about Hofstede’s six dimensions.The various types of US business protocols including communication approach, meet ing and greeting, dress, other non verbal communication and language were discussed. Finally the paper made seven recommendations to follow to be a good intercultural communicator and minimize misunderstanding. In closing, when conducting business internationally, entrepreneurs learn that cultures have different expectations and protocols when it comes to meetings and interpersonal discussions. To be a successful in your business and be a good cultural communicator it is important to embrace these differences. 2 Cultural Communication References Bibliogrpahy: ADP Survey. (2002). ADP Survey. Beaman, K. C. -f. (2005). Cross Culture Communication in the workplace. Retrieved from The Jeitosa Group INC website: http://www. jeitosa. com/wpcontent/uploads/2010/12/Cross-cultural-communication-in-the-workplace_Apr2005. pdf Ferraro, G. P. (2002). The Cultural Dimension of International Business, 5th Edition. pearson. HR Magazine, SHRM. (2008, September). Selected Cross Cultural factors in Hum an Resources Management. Retrieved from Excelsior College virtual library, ebscohost. com: www. ehis. bscohost. com. vlib. excelsior. edu/eds/ Hynes, G. E. (2011). Business Communications, Strategies and Application. McGrawHill Irwin. Ingram, D. (2012). The impact of Cultural Diversity in Business Communication. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness. chron. com/impact-cultural-diversity-businesscommunication-3047. html: www. smallbusiness. chron. com Shokina, L. , & Nishev, A. (2009). Cross-Cultural Blog, Intercultural communication in the context of Globalization. Retrieved from http://www. stanford. edu/group/ccr/blog/2009/04/intercultural_communication_in. h tml: www. stanford. edu 13

Database Solutions

DATABASE SOLUTIONS (2nd Edition) THOMAS M CONNOLLY & CAROLYN E BEGG SOLUTIONS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS Chapter 1 Introduction- Review questions 1. 1List four examples of database systems other than those listed in Section 1. 1. Some examples could be: †¢A system that maintains component part details for a car manufacturer; †¢An advertising company keeping details of all clients and adverts placed with them; †¢A training company keeping course information and participants’ details; †¢An organization maintaining all sales order information. 1. 2Discuss the meaning of each of the following terms: (a)dataFor end users, this constitutes all the different values connected with the various objects/entities that are of concern to them. (b)database A shared collection of logically related data (and a description of this data), designed to meet the information needs of an organization. (c)database management system A software system that: enables users to define, create, and maintain the database and provides controlled access to this database. (d)application program A computer program that interacts with the database by issuing an appropriate request (typically an SQL statement) to the DBMS. (e)data independenceThis is essentially the separation of underlying file structures from the programs that operate on them, also called program-data independence. (f)views. A virtual table that does not necessarily exist in the database but is generated by the DBMS from the underlying base tables whenever it’s accessed. These present only a subset of the database that is of particular interest to a user. Views can be customized, for example, field names may change, and they also provide a level of security preventing users from seeing certain data. 1. 3Describe the main characteristics of the database approach.Focus is now on the data first, and then the applications. The structure of the data is now kept separate from the programs that operate on the d ata. This is held in the system catalog or data dictionary. Programs can now share data, which is no longer fragmented. There is also a reduction in redundancy, and achievement of program-data independence. 1. 4Describe the five components of the DBMS environment and discuss how they relate to each other. (1)Hardware:The computer system(s) that the DBMS and the application programs run on. This can range from a single PC, to a single mainframe, to a network of computers. 2)Software:The DBMS software and the application programs, together with the operating system, including network software if the DBMS is being used over a network. (3)Data:The data acts as a bridge between the hardware and software components and the human components. As we’ve already said, the database contains both the operational data and the meta-data (the ‘data about data’). (4)Procedures:The instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database. This may include instructions on how to log on to the DBMS, make backup copies of the database, and how to handle hardware or software failures. 5)People:This includes the database designers, database administrators (DBAs), application programmers, and the end-users. 1. 5Describe the problems with the traditional two-tier client-server architecture and discuss how these problems were overcome with the three-tier client-server architecture. In the mid-1990s, as applications became more complex and potentially could be deployed to hundreds or thousands of end-users, the client side of this architecture gave rise to two problems: †¢A ‘fat’ client, requiring considerable resources on the client’s computer to run effectively (resources include disk space, RAM, and CPU power). A significant client side administration overhead. By 1995, a new variation of the traditional two-tier client-server model appeared to solve these problems called the three-tier client-server architecture. This new arc hitecture proposed three layers, each potentially running on a different platform: (1)The user interface layer, which runs on the end-user’s computer (the client). (2)The business logic and data processing layer. This middle tier runs on a server and is often called the application server. One application server is designed to serve multiple clients. (3)A DBMS, which stores the data required by the middle tier.This tier may run on a separate server called the database server. The three-tier design has many advantages over the traditional two-tier design, such as: †¢A ‘thin’ client, which requires less expensive hardware. †¢Simplified application maintenance, as a result of centralizing the business logic for many end-users into a single application server. This eliminates the concerns of software distribution that are problematic in the traditional two-tier client-server architecture. †¢Added modularity, which makes it easier to modify or replace o ne tier without affecting the other tiers. Easier load balancing, again as a result of separating the core business logic from the database functions. For example, a Transaction Processing Monitor (TPM) can be used to reduce the number of connections to the database server. (A TPM is a program that controls data transfer between clients and servers in order to provide a consistent environment for Online Transaction Processing (OLTP). ) An additional advantage is that the three-tier architecture maps quite naturally to the Web environment, with a Web browser acting as the ‘thin’ client, and a Web server acting as the application server.The three-tier client server architecture is illustrated in Figure 1. 4. 1. 6Describe the functions that should be provided by a modern full-scale multi-user DBMS. Data Storage, Retrieval and UpdateAuthorization Services A User-Accessible CatalogSupport for Data Communication Transaction SupportIntegrity Services Concurrency Control Servic esServices to Promote Data Independence Recovery ServicesUtility Services 1. 7Of the functions described in your answer to Question 1. 6, which ones do you think would not be needed in a standalone PC DBMS? Provide justification for your answer.Concurrency Control Services – only single user. Authorization Services – only single user, but may be needed if different individuals are to use the DBMS at different times. Utility Services – limited in scope. Support for Data Communication – only standalone system. 1. 8Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs. Some advantages of the database approach include control of data redundancy, data consistency, sharing of data, and improved security and integrity. Some disadvantages include complexity, cost, reduced performance, and higher impact of a failure.Chapter 2 The Relational Model – Review questions 2. 1Discuss each of the following concepts in the context of the relational data model: (a)relati on A table with columns and rows. (b)attribute A named column of a relation. (c)domain The set of allowable values for one or more attributes. (d)tuple A record of a relation. (e)relational database. A collection of normalized tables. 2. 2Discuss the properties of a relational table. A relational table has the following properties: †¢The table has a name that is distinct from all other tables in the database. †¢Each cell of the table contains exactly one value. For example, it would be wrong to store several telephone numbers for a single branch in a single cell. In other words, tables don’t contain repeating groups of data. A relational table that satisfies this property is said to be normalized or in first normal form. ) †¢Each column has a distinct name. †¢The values of a column are all from the same domain. †¢The order of columns has no significance. In other words, provided a column name is moved along with the column values, we can interchange c olumns. †¢Each record is distinct; there are no duplicate records. The order of records has no significance, theoretically. 2. 3Discuss the differences between the candidate keys and the primary key of a table. Explain what is meant by a foreign key. How do foreign keys of tables relate to candidate keys? Give examples to illustrate your answer. The primary key is the candidate key that is selected to identify tuples uniquely within a relation. A foreign key is an attribute or set of attributes within one relation that matches the candidate key of some (possibly the same) relation. 2. 4What does a null represent?Represents a value for a column that is currently unknown or is not applicable for this record. 2. 5Define the two principal integrity rules for the relational model. Discuss why it is desirable to enforce these rules. Entity integrityIn a base table, no column of a primary key can be null. Referential integrityIf a foreign key exists in a table, either the foreign key value must match a candidate key value of some record in its home table or the foreign key value must be wholly null. Chapter 3 SQL and QBE – Review questions 3. 1What are the two major components of SQL and what function do they serve?A data definition language (DDL) for defining the database structure. A data manipulation language (DML) for retrieving and updating data. 3. 2Explain the function of each of the clauses in the SELECT statement. What restrictions are imposed on these clauses? FROMspecifies the table or tables to be used; WHEREfilters the rows subject to some condition; GROUP BYforms groups of rows with the same column value; HAVINGfilters the groups subject to some condition; SELECTspecifies which columns are to appear in the output; ORDER BYspecifies the order of the output. 3. What restrictions apply to the use of the aggregate functions within the SELECT statement? How do nulls affect the aggregate functions? An aggregate function can be used only in the SEL ECT list and in the HAVING clause. Apart from COUNT(*), each function eliminates nulls first and operates only on the remaining non-null values. COUNT(*) counts all the rows of a table, regardless of whether nulls or duplicate values occur. 3. 4Explain how the GROUP BY clause works. What is the difference between the WHERE and HAVING clauses? SQL first applies the WHERE clause. Then it conceptually arranges he table based on the grouping column(s). Next, applies the HAVING clause and finally orders the result according to the ORDER BY clause. WHERE filters rows subject to some condition; HAVING filters groups subject to some condition. 3. 5What is the difference between a subquery and a join? Under what circumstances would you not be able to use a subquery? With a subquery, the columns specified in the SELECT list are restricted to one table. Thus, cannot use a subquery if the SELECT list contains columns from more than one table. 3. 6What is QBE and what is the relationship between QBE and SQL?QBE is an alternative, graphical-based, ‘point-and-click’ way of querying the database, which is particularly suited for queries that are not too complex, and can be expressed in terms of a few tables. QBE has acquired the reputation of being one of the easiest ways for non-technical users to obtain information from the database. QBE queries are converted into their equivalent SQL statements before transmission to the DBMS server. Chapter 4 Database Systems Development Lifecycle – Review questions 4. 1Describe what is meant by the term ‘software crisis’.The past few decades has witnessed the dramatic rise in the number of software applications. Many of these applications proved to be demanding, requiring constant maintenance. This maintenance involved correcting faults, implementing new user requirements, and modifying the software to run on new or upgraded platforms. With so much software around to support, the effort spent on maintenan ce began to absorb resources at an alarming rate. As a result, many major software projects were late, over budget, and the software produced was unreliable, difficult to maintain, and performed poorly.This led to what has become known as the ‘software crisis’. Although this term was first used in the late 1960s, more than 30 years later, the crisis is still with us. As a result, some people now refer to the software crisis as the ‘software depression’. 4. 2Discuss the relationship between the information systems lifecycle and the database system development lifecycle. An information system is the resources that enable the collection, management, control, and dissemination of data/information throughout a company. The database is a fundamental component of an information system.The lifecycle of an information system is inherently linked to the lifecycle of the database that supports it. Typically, the stages of the information systems lifecycle include: pla nning, requirements collection and analysis, design (including database design), prototyping, implementation, testing, conversion, and operational maintenance. As a database is a fundamental component of the larger company-wide information system, the database system development lifecycle is inherently linked with the information systems lifecycle. 4. 3Briefly describe the stages of the database system development lifecycle. See Figure 4. Stages of the database system development lifecycle. Database planning is the management activities that allow the stages of the database system development lifecycle to be realized as efficiently and effectively as possible. System definition involves identifying the scope and boundaries of the database system including its major user views. A user view can represent a job role or business application area. Requirements collection and analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing information about the company that is to be supported by the d atabase system, and using this information to identify the requirements for the new system.There are three approaches to dealing with multiple user views, namely the centralized approach, the view integration approach, and a combination of both. The centralized approach involves collating the users’ requirements for different user views into a single list of requirements. A data model representing all the user views is created during the database design stage. The view integration approach involves leaving the users’ requirements for each user view as separate lists of requirements. Data models representing each user view are created and then merged at a later stage of database design.Database design is the process of creating a design that will support the company’s mission statement and mission objectives for the required database. This stage includes the logical and physical design of the database. The aim of DBMS selection is to select a system that meets th e current and future requirements of the company, balanced against costs that include the purchase of the DBMS product and any additional software/hardware, and the costs associated with changeover and training. Application design involves designing the user interface and the application programs that use and process the database.This stage involves two main activities: transaction design and user interface design. Prototyping involves building a working model of the database system, which allows the designers or users to visualize and evaluate the system. Implementation is the physical realization of the database and application designs. Data conversion and loading involves transferring any existing data into the new database and converting any existing applications to run on the new database. Testing is the process of running the database system with the intent of finding errors.Operational maintenance is the process of monitoring and maintaining the system following installation. 4. 4Describe the purpose of creating a mission statement and mission objectives for the required database during the database planning stage. The mission statement defines the major aims of the database system, while each mission objective identifies a particular task that the database must support. 4. 5Discuss what a user view represents when designing a database system. A user view defines what is required of a database system from the perspective of a particular job (such as Manager orSupervisor) or business application area (such as marketing, personnel, or stock control). 4. 6Compare and contrast the centralized approach and view integration approach to managing the design of a database system with multiple user views. An important activity of the requirements collection and analysis stage is deciding how to deal with the situation where there is more than one user view. There are three approaches to dealing with multiple user views: †¢the centralized approach, †¢the view integration approach, and †¢a combination of both approaches.Centralized approach Requirements for each user view are merged into a single list of requirements for the new database system. A logical data model representing all user views is created during the database design stage. The centralized approach involves collating the requirements for different user views into a single list of requirements. A data model representing all user views is created in the database design stage. A diagram representing the management of user views 1 to 3 using the centralized approach is shown in Figure 4. 4.Generally, this approach is preferred when there is a significant overlap in requirements for each user view and the database system is not overly complex. See Figure 4. 4 The centralized approach to managing multiple user views 1 to 3. View integration approach Requirements for each user view remain as separate lists. Data models representing each user view are created and then mer ged later during the database design stage. The view integration approach involves leaving the requirements for each user view as separate lists of requirements.We create data models representing each user view. A data model that represents a single user view is called a local logical data model. We then merge the local data models to create a global logical data model representing all user views of the company. A diagram representing the management of user views 1 to 3 using the view integration approach is shown in Figure 4. 5. Generally, this approach is preferred when there are significant differences between user views and the database system is sufficiently complex to justify dividing the work into more manageable parts.See Figure 4. 5 The view integration approach to managing multiple user views 1 to 3. For some complex database systems it may be appropriate to use a combination of both the centralized and view integration approaches to managing multiple user views. For examp le, the requirements for two or more users views may be first merged using the centralized approach and then used to create a local logical data model. (Therefore in this situation the local data model represents not just a single user view but the number of user views merged using the centralized approach).The local data models representing one or more user views are then merged using the view integration approach to form the global logical data model representing all user views. 4. 7Explain why it is necessary to select the target DBMS before beginning the physical database design phase. Database design is made up of two main phases called logical and physical design. During logical database design, we identify the important objects that need to be represented in the database and the relationships between these objects.During physical database design, we decide how the logical design is to be physically implemented (as tables) in the target DBMS. Therefore it is necessary to have selected the target DBMS before we are able to proceed to physical database design. See Figure 4. 1 Stages of the database system development lifecycle. 4. 8Discuss the two main activities associated with application design. The database and application design stages are parallel activities of the database system development lifecycle. In most cases, we cannot complete the application design until the design of the database itself has taken place.On the other hand, the database exists to support the applications, and so there must be a flow of information between application design and database design. The two main activities associated with the application design stage is the design of the user interface and the application programs that use and process the database. We must ensure that all the functionality stated in the requirements specifications is present in the application design for the database system. This involves designing the interaction between the user and the data, w hich we call transaction design.In addition to designing how the required functionality is to be achieved, we have to design an appropriate user interface to the database system. 4. 9Describe the potential benefits of developing a prototype database system. The purpose of developing a prototype database system is to allow users to use the prototype to identify the features of the system that work well, or are inadequate, and if possible to suggest improvements or even new features for the database system. In this way, we can greatly clarify the requirements and evaluate the feasibility of a particular system design.Prototypes should have the major advantage of being relatively inexpensive and quick to build. 4. 10Discuss the main activities associated with the implementation stage. The database implementation is achieved using the Data Definition Language (DDL) of the selected DBMS or a graphical user interface (GUI), which provides the same functionality while hiding the low-level DDL statements. The DDL statements are used to create the database structures and empty database files. Any specified user views are also implemented at this stage.The application programs are implemented using the preferred third or fourth generation language (3GL or 4GL). Parts of these application programs are the database transactions, which we implement using the Data Manipulation Language (DML) of the target DBMS, possibly embedded within a host programming language, such as Visual Basic (VB), VB. net, Python, Delphi, C, C++, C#, Java, COBOL, Fortran, Ada, or Pascal. We also implement the other components of the application design such as menu screens, data entry forms, and reports.Again, the target DBMS may have its own fourth generation tools that allow rapid development of applications through the provision of non-procedural query languages, reports generators, forms generators, and application generators. Security and integrity controls for the application are also impleme nted. Some of these controls are implemented using the DDL, but others may need to be defined outside the DDL using, for example, the supplied DBMS utilities or operating system controls. 4. 11Describe the purpose of the data conversion and loading stage.This stage is required only when a new database system is replacing an old system. Nowadays, it’s common for a DBMS to have a utility that loads existing files into the new database. The utility usually requires the specification of the source file and the target database, and then automatically converts the data to the required format of the new database files. Where applicable, it may be possible for the developer to convert and use application programs from the old system for use by the new system. 4. 2Explain the purpose of testing the database system. Before going live, the newly developed database system should be thoroughly tested. This is achieved using carefully planned test strategies and realistic data so that the entire testing process is methodically and rigorously carried out. Note that in our definition of testing we have not used the commonly held view that testing is the process of demonstrating that faults are not present. In fact, testing cannot show the absence of faults; it can show only that software faults are present.If testing is conducted successfully, it will uncover errors in the application programs and possibly the database structure. As a secondary benefit, testing demonstrates that the database and the application programs appear to be working according to their specification and that performance requirements appear to be satisfied. In addition, metrics collected from the testing stage provides a measure of software reliability and software quality. As with database design, the users of the new system should be involved in the testing process.The ideal situation for system testing is to have a test database on a separate hardware system, but often this is not available. I f real data is to be used, it is essential to have backups taken in case of error. Testing should also cover usability of the database system. Ideally, an evaluation should be conducted against a usability specification. Examples of criteria that can be used to conduct the evaluation include (Sommerville, 2000): †¢Learnability – How long does it take a new user to become productive with the system? Performance – How well does the system response match the user’s work practice? †¢Robustness – How tolerant is the system of user error? †¢Recoverability – How good is the system at recovering from user errors? †¢Adapatability – How closely is the system tied to a single model of work? Some of these criteria may be evaluated in other stages of the lifecycle. After testing is complete, the database system is ready to be ‘signed off’ and handed over to the users. 4. 13What are the main activities associated with oper ational maintenance stage.In this stage, the database system now moves into a maintenance stage, which involves the following activities: †¢Monitoring the performance of the database system. If the performance falls below an acceptable level, the database may need to be tuned or reorganized. †¢Maintaining and upgrading the database system (when required). New requirements are incorporated into the database system through the preceding stages of the lifecycle. Chapter 5 Database Administration and Security – Review questions 5. 1Define the purpose and tasks associated with data administration and database administration.Data administration is the management and control of the corporate data, including database planning, development and maintenance of standards, policies and procedures, and logical database design. Database administration is the management and control of the physical realization of the corporate database system, including physical database design and implementation, setting security and integrity controls, monitoring system performance, and reorganizing the database as necessary. 5. 2Compare and contrast the main tasks carried out by the DA and DBA.The Data Administrator (DA) and Database Administrator (DBA) are responsible for managing and controlling the activities associated with the corporate data and the corporate database, respectively. The DA is more concerned with the early stages of the lifecycle, from planning through to logical database design. In contrast, the DBA is more concerned with the later stages, from application/physical database design to operational maintenance. Depending on the size and complexity of the organization and/or database system the DA and DBA can be the responsibility of one or more people. . 3Explain the purpose and scope of database security. Security considerations do not only apply to the data held in a database. Breaches of security may affect other parts of the system, which may in turn affect the database. Consequently, database security encompasses hardware, software, people, and data. To effectively implement security requires appropriate controls, which are defined in specific mission objectives for the system. This need for security, while often having been neglected or overlooked in the past, is now increasingly recognized by organizations.The reason for this turn-around is due to the increasing amounts of crucial corporate data being stored on computer and the acceptance that any loss or unavailability of this data could be potentially disastrous. 5. 4List the main types of threat that could affect a database system, and for each, describe the possible outcomes for an organization. Figure 5. 1 A summary of the potential threats to computer systems. 5. 5Explain the following in terms of providing security for a database: authorization; views; backup and recovery; integrity; encryption; RAID. AuthorizationAuthorization is the granting of a right or privilege t hat enables a subject to have legitimate access to a system or a system’s object. Authorization controls can be built into the software, and govern not only what database system or object a specified user can access, but also what the user may do with it. The process of authorization involves authentication of a subject requesting access to an object, where ‘subject’ represents a user or program and ‘object’ represents a database table, view, procedure, trigger, or any other object that can be created within the database system. ViewsA view is a virtual table that does not necessarily exist in the database but can be produced upon request by a particular user, at the time of request. The view mechanism provides a powerful and flexible security mechanism by hiding parts of the database from certain users. The user is not aware of the existence of any columns or rows that are missing from the view. A view can be defined over several tables with a user being granted the appropriate privilege to use it, but not to use the base tables. In this way, using a view is more restrictive than simply having certain privileges granted to a user on the base table(s).Backup and recovery Backup is the process of periodically taking a copy of the database and log file (and possibly programs) onto offline storage media. A DBMS should provide backup facilities to assist with the recovery of a database following failure. To keep track of database transactions, the DBMS maintains a special file called a log file (or journal) that contains information about all updates to the database. It is always advisable to make backup copies of the database and log file at regular intervals and to ensure that the copies are in a secure location.In the event of a failure that renders the database unusable, the backup copy and the details captured in the log file are used to restore the database to the latest possible consistent state. Journaling is the process of keeping and maintaining a log file (or journal) of all changes made to the database to enable recovery to be undertaken effectively in the event of a failure. Integrity constraints Contribute to maintaining a secure database system by preventing data from becoming invalid, and hence giving misleading or incorrect results. EncryptionIs the encoding of the data by a special algorithm that renders the data unreadable by any program without the decryption key. If a database system holds particularly sensitive data, it may be deemed necessary to encode it as a precaution against possible external threats or attempts to access it. Some DBMSs provide an encryption facility for this purpose. The DBMS can access the data (after decoding it), although there is degradation in performance because of the time taken to decode it. Encryption also protects data transmitted over communication lines.There are a number of techniques for encoding data to conceal the information; some are termed irreve rsible and others reversible. Irreversible techniques, as the name implies, do not permit the original data to be known. However, the data can be used to obtain valid statistical information. Reversible techniques are more commonly used. To transmit data securely over insecure networks requires the use of a cryptosystem, which includes: †¢an encryption key to encrypt the data (plaintext); †¢an encryption algorithm that, with the encryption key, transforms the plain text into ciphertext; †¢a decryption key to decrypt the ciphertext; a decryption algorithm that, with the decryption key, transforms the ciphertext back into plain text. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) RAID works by having a large disk array comprising an arrangement of several independent disks that are organized to improve reliability and at the same time increase performance. The hardware that the DBMS is running on must be fault-tolerant, meaning that the DBMS should continue to operate even if one of the hardware components fails. This suggests having redundant components that can be seamlessly integrated into the working system whenever there is one or more component failures.The main hardware components that should be fault-tolerant include disk drives, disk controllers, CPU, power supplies, and cooling fans. Disk drives are the most vulnerable components with the shortest times between failures of any of the hardware components. One solution is the use of Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) technology. RAID works by having a large disk array comprising an arrangement of several independent disks that are organized to improve reliability and at the same time increase performance. Chapter 6 Fact-Finding – Review questions 6. Briefly describe what the process of fact-finding attempts to achieve for a database developer. Fact-finding is the formal process of using techniques such as interviews and questionnaires to collect facts about systems, requiremen ts, and preferences. The database developer uses fact-finding techniques at various stages throughout the database systems lifecycle to capture the necessary facts to build the required database system. The necessary facts cover the business and the users of the database system, including the terminology, problems, opportunities, constraints, requirements, and priorities.These facts are captured using fact-finding techniques. 6. 2Describe how fact-finding is used throughout the stages of the database system development lifecycle. There are many occasions for fact-finding during the database system development lifecycle. However, fact-finding is particularly crucial to the early stages of the lifecycle, including the database planning, system definition, and requirements collection and analysis stages. It’s during these early stages that the database developer learns about the terminology, problems, opportunities, constraints, requirements, and priorities of the business and t he users of the system.Fact-finding is also used during database design and the later stages of the lifecycle, but to a lesser extent. For example, during physical database design, fact-finding becomes technical as the developer attempts to learn more about the DBMS selected for the database system. Also, during the final stage, operational maintenance, fact-finding is used to determine whether a system requires tuning to improve performance or further developed to include new requirements. 6. 3For each stage of the database system development lifecycle identify examples of the facts captured and the documentation produced. . 4A database developer normally uses several fact-finding techniques during a single database project. The five most commonly used techniques are examining documentation, interviewing, observing the business in operation, conducting research, and using questionnaires. Describe each fact-finding technique and identify the advantages and disadvantages of each. Exa mining documentation can be useful when you’re trying to gain some insight as to how the need for a database arose.You may also find that documentation can be helpful to provide information on the business (or part of the business) associated with the problem. If the problem relates to the current system there should be documentation associated with that system. Examining documents, forms, reports, and files associated with the current system, is a good way to quickly gain some understanding of the system. Interviewing is the most commonly used, and normally most useful, fact-finding technique. You can interview to collect information from individuals face-to-face.There can be several objectives to using interviewing such as finding out facts, checking facts, generating user interest and feelings of involvement, identifying requirements, and gathering ideas and opinions. Observation is one of the most effective fact-finding techniques you can use to understand a system. With this technique, you can either par ¬ticipate in, or watch a person perform activities to learn about the system. This technique is particularly useful when the validity of data collected through other methods is in question or when the complexity of certain aspects of the system prevents a clear explanation by the end-users.A useful fact-finding technique is to research the application and prob ¬lem. Computer trade journals, reference books, and the Internet are good sources of information. They can provide you with information on how others have solved similar prob ¬lems, plus you can learn whether or not software packages exist to solve your problem. Another fact-finding technique is to conduct surveys through questionnaires. Questionnaires are special-purpose documents that allow you to gather facts from a large number of people while maintaining some control over their responses.When dealing with a large audience, no other fact-finding technique can tabulate the same facts as efficiently. 6. 5Describe the purpose of defining a mission statement and mission objectives for a database system. The mission statement defines the major aims of the database system. Those driving the database project within the business (such as the Director and/or owner) normally define the mission statement. A mission statement helps to clarify the purpose of the database project and provides a clearer path towards the efficient and effective creation of the required database system.Once the mission statement is defined, the next activity involves identifying the mission objectives. Each mission objective should identify a particular task that the database must support. The assumption is that if the database supports the mission objectives then the mission statement should be met. The mission statement and objectives may be accompanied with additional information that specifies, in general terms, the work to be done, the resources with which to do it, and the money to pay f or it all. 6. 6What is the purpose of the systems definition stage?The purpose of the system definition stage is to identify the scope and boundary of the database system and its major user views. Defining the scope and boundary of the database system helps to identify the main types of data mentioned in the interviews and a rough guide as to how this data is related. A user view represents the requirements that should be supported by a database system as defined by a particular job role (such as Manager or Assistant) or business application area (such as video rentals or stock control). 6. How do the contents of a users’ requirements specification differ from a systems specification? There are two main documents created during the requirements collection and analysis stage, namely the users’ requirements specification and the systems specification. The users’ requirements specification describes in detail the data to be held in the database and how the data is to be used. The systems specification describes any features to be included in the database system such as the required performance and the levels of security. 6. Describe one approach to deciding whether to use centralized, view integration, or a combination of both when developing a database system for multiple user views. One way to help you make a decision whether to use the centralized, view integration, or a combination of both approaches to manage multiple user views is to examine the overlap in terms of the data used between the user views identified during the system definition stage. It’s difficult to give precise rules as to when it’s appropriate to use the centralized or view integration approaches.As the database developer, you should base your decision on an assessment of the complexity of the database system and the degree of overlap between the various user views. However, whether you use the centralized or view integration approach or a mixture of both to build the underlying database, ultimately you need to create the original user views for the working database system. Chapter 7 Entity-Relationship Modeling – Review questions 7. 1Describe what entities represent in an ER model and provide examples of entities with a physical or conceptual existence.Entity is a set of objects with the same properties, which are identified by a user or company as having an independent existence. Each object, which should be uniquely identifiable within the set, is called an entity occurrence. An entity has an independent existence and can represent objects with a physical (or ‘real’) existence or objects with a conceptual (or ‘abstract’) existence. 7. 2Describe what relationships represent in an ER model and provide examples of unary, binary, and ternary relationships.Relationship is a set of meaningful associations among entities. As with entities, each association should be uniquely identifiable within the set. A uniquely identifiable association is called a relationship occurrence. Each relationship is given a name that describes its function. For example, the Actor entity is associated with the Role entity through a relationship called Plays, and the Role entity is associated with the Video entity through a relationship called Features. The entities involved in a particular relationship are referred to as participants.The number of participants in a relationship is called the degree and indicates the number of entities involved in a relationship. A relationship of degree one is called unary, which is commonly referred to as a recursive relationship. A unary relationship describes a relationship where the same entity participates more than once in different roles. An example of a unary relationship is Supervises, which represents an association of staff with a supervisor where the supervisor is also a member of staff.In other words, the Staff entity participates twice in the Supervises re lationship; the first participation as a supervisor, and the second participation as a member of staff who is supervised (supervisee). See Figure 7. 5 for a diagrammatic representation of the Supervises relationship. A relationship of degree two is called binary. A relationship of a degree higher than binary is called a complex relationship. A relationship of degree three is called ternary. An example of a ternary relationship is Registers with three participating entities, namely Branch, Staff, and Member.The purpose of this relationship is to represent the situation where a member of staff registers a member at a particular branch, allowing for members to register at more than one branch, and members of staff to move between branches. Figure 7. 4 Example of a ternary relationship called Registers. 7. 3Describe what attributes represent in an ER model and provide examples of simple, composite, single-value, multi-value, and derived attributes. An attribute is a property of an entit y or a relationship. Attributes represent what we want to know about entities.For example, a Video entity may be described by the catalogNo, title, category, dailyRental, and price attributes. These attributes hold values that describe each video occurrence, and represent the main source of data stored in the database. Simple attribute is an attribute composed of a single component. Simple attributes cannot be further subdivided. Examples of simple attributes include the category and price attributes for a video. Composite attribute is an attribute composed of multiple components. Composite attributes can be further divided to yield smaller components with an independent existence.For example, the name attribute of the Member entity with the value ‘Don Nelson’ can be subdivided into fName (‘Don’) and lName (‘Nelson’). Single-valued attribute is an attribute that holds a single value for an entity occurrence. The majority of attributes are singl e-valued for a particular entity. For example, each occurrence of the Video entity has a single-value for the catalogNo attribute (for example, 207132), and therefore the catalogNo attribute is referred to as being single-valued. Multi-valued attribute is an attribute that holds multiple values for an entity occurrence.Some attributes have multiple values for a particular entity. For example, each occurrence of the Video entity may have multiple values for the category attribute (for example, ‘Children’ and ‘Comedy’), and therefore the category attribute in this case would be multi-valued. A multi-valued attribute may have a set of values with specified lower and upper limits. For example, the category attribute may have between one and three values. Derived attribute is an attribute that represents a value that is derivable from the value of a related attribute, or set of attributes, not necessarily in the same entity.Some attributes may be related for a p articular entity. For example, the age of a member of staff (age) is derivable from the date of birth (DOB) attribute, and therefore the age and DOB attributes are related. We refer to the age attribute as a derived attribute, the value of which is derived from the DOB attribute. 7. 4Describe what multiplicity represents for a relationship. Multiplicity is the number of occurrences of one entity that may relate to a single occurrence of an associated entity. 7. 5What are business rules and how does multiplicity model these constraints?Multiplicity constrains the number of entity occurrences that relate to other entity occurrences through a particular relationship. Multiplicity is a representation of the policies established by the user or company, and is referred to as a business rule. Ensuring that all appropriate business rules are identified and represented is an important part of modeling a company. The multiplicity for a binary relationship is generally referred to as one-to-on e (1:1), one-to-many (1:*), or many-to-many (*:*). Examples of three types of relationships include: †¢A member of staff manages a branch. A branch has members of staff. †¢Actors play in videos. 7. 6How does multiplicity represent both the cardinality and the participation constraints on a relationship? Multiplicity actually consists of two separate constraints known as cardinality and participation. Cardinality describes the number of possible relationships for each participating entity. Participation determines whether all or only some entity occurrences participate in a relationship. The cardinality of a binary relationship is what we have been referring to as one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.A participation constraint represents whether all entity occurrences are involved in a particular relationship (mandatory participation) or only some (optional participation). The cardinality and participation constraints for the Staff Manages Branch relationship are shown in Figure 7. 11. 7. 7Provide an example of a relationship with attributes. An example of a relationship with an attribute is the relationship called PlaysIn, which associates the Actor and Video entities. We may wish to record the character played by an actor in a given video.This information is associated with the PlaysIn relationship rather than the Actor or Video entities. We create an attribute called character to store this information and assign it to the PlaysIn relationship, as illustrated in Figure 7. 12. Note, in this figure the character attribute is shown using the symbol for an entity; however, to distinguish between a relationship with an attribute and an entity, the rectangle representing the attribute is associated with the relationship using a dashed line. Figure 7. 12 A relationship called PlaysIn with an attribute called character. . 8Describe how strong and weak entities differ and provide an example of each. We can classify entities as being either strong or we ak. A strong entity is not dependent on the existence of another entity for its primary key. A weak entity is partially or wholly dependent on the existence of another entity, or entities, for its primary key. For example, as we can distinguish one actor from all other actors and one video from all other videos without the existence of any other entity, Actor and Video are referred to as being strong entities.In other words, the Actor and Video entities are strong because they have their own primary keys. An example of a weak entity called Role, which represents characters played by actors in videos. If we are unable to uniquely identify one Role entity occurrence from another without the existence of the Actor and Video entities, then Role is referred to as being a weak entity. In other words, the Role entity is weak because it has no primary key of its own. Figure 7. 6 Diagrammatic representation of attributes for the Video, Role, and Actor entities.Strong entities are sometimes r eferred to as parent, owner, or dominant entities and weak entities as child, dependent, or subordinate entities. 7. 9Describe how fan and chasm traps can occur in an ER model and how they can be resolved. Fan and chasm traps are two types of connection traps that can occur in ER models. The traps normally occur due to a misinterpretation of the meaning of certain relationships. In general, to identify connection traps we must ensure that the meaning of a relationship (and the business rule that it represents) is fully understood and clearly defined.If we don’t understand the relationships we may create a model that is not a true representation of the ‘real world’. A fan trap may occur when two entities have a 1:* relationship that fan out from a third entity, but the two entities should have a direct relationship between them to provide the necessary information. A fan trap may be resolved through the addition of a direct relationship between the two entities th at were originally separated by the third entity. A chasm trap may occur when an ER model suggests the existence of a relationship between entities, but the pathway does not exist between certain entity occurrences.More specifically, a chasm trap may occur where there is a relationship with optional participation that forms part of the pathway between the entities that are related. Again, a chasm trap may be resolved by the addition of a direct relationship between the two entities that were originally related through a pathway that included optional participation. Chapter 8 Normalization – Review questions 8. 1Discuss how normalization may be used in database design. Normalization can be used in database design in two ways: the first is to use ormalization as a bottom-up approach to database design; the second is to use normalization in conjunction with ER modeling. Using normalization as a bottom-up approach involves analyzing the associations between attributes and, based on this analysis, grouping the attributes together to form tables that represent entities and relationships. However, this approach becomes difficult with a large number of attributes, where it’s difficult to establish all the important associations between the attributes. Alternatively, you can use a top-down approach to database design.In this approach, we use ER modeling to create a data model that represents the main entities and relationships. We then translate the ER model into a set of tables that represents this data. It’s at this point that we use normalization to check whether the tables are well designed. 8. 2Describe the types of update anomalies that may occur on a table that has redundant data. Tables that have redundant data may have problems called update anomalies, which are classified as insertion, deletion, or modification anomalies. See Figure 8. 2 for an example of a table with redundant data called StaffBranch.There are two main types of insertion anomalies, which we illustrate using this table. Insertion anomalies (1)To insert the details of a new member of staff located at a given branch into the StaffBranch table, we must also enter the correct details for that branch. For example, to insert the details of a new member of staff at branch B002, we must enter the correct details of branch B002 so that the branch details are consistent with values for branch B002 in other records of the StaffBranch table. The data shown in the StaffBranch table is also shown in the Staff and Branch tables shown in Figure 8. 1.These tables do have redundant data and do not suffer from this potential inconsistency, because for each staff member we only enter the appropriate branch number into the Staff table. In addition, the details of branch B002 are recorded only once in the database as a single record in the Branch table. (2)To insert details of a new branch that currently has no members of staff into the StaffBranch table, it’s nec essary to enter nulls into the staff-related columns, such as staffNo. However, as staffNo is the primary key for the StaffBranch table, attempting to enter nulls for staffNo violates entity integrity, and is not allowed.The design of the tables shown in Figure 8. 1 avoids this problem because new branch details are entered into the Branch table separately from the staff details. The details of staff ultimately located at a new branch can be entered into the Staff table at a later date. Deletion anomalies If we delete a record from the StaffBranch table that represents the last member of staff located at a branch, the details about that branch are also lost from the database. For example, if we delete the record for staff Art Peters (S0415) from the StaffBranch table, the details relating to branch B003 are lost from the database.The design of the tables in Figure 8. 1 avoids this problem because branch records are stored separately from staff records and only the column branchNo re lates the two tables. If we delete the record for staff Art Peters (S0415) from the Staff table, the details on branch B003 in the Branch table remain unaffected. Modification anomalies If we want to change the value of one of the columns of a particular branch in the StaffBranch table, for example the telephone number for branch B001, we must update the records of all staff located at that branch.If this modification is not carried out on all the appropriate records of the StaffBranch table, the database will become inconsistent. In this example, branch B001 would have different telephone numbers in different staff records. The above examples illustrate that the Staff and Branch tables of Figure 8. 1 have more desirable properties than the StaffBranch table of Figure 8. 2. In the following sections, we examine how normal forms can be used to formalize the identification of tables that have desirable properties from those that may potentially suffer from update anomalies. . 3Describ e the characteristics of a table that violates first normal form (1NF) and then describe how such a table is converted to 1NF. The rule for first normal form (1NF) is a table in which the intersection of every column and record contains only one value. In other words a table that contains more than one atomic value in the intersection of one or more column for one or more records is not in 1NF. The non 1NF table can be converted to 1NF by restructuring original table by removing the column with the multi-values along with a copy of the primary key to create a new table.See Figure 8. 4 for an example of this approach. The advantage of this approach is that the resultant tables may be in normal forms later that 1NF. 8. 4What is the minimal normal form that a relation must satisfy? Provide a definition for this normal form. Only first normal form (1NF) is critical in creating appropriate tables for relational databases. All the subsequent normal forms are optional. However, to avoid th e update anomalies discussed in Section 8. 2, it’s normally recommended that you proceed to third normal form (3NF).First normal form (1NF) is a table in which the intersection of every column and record contains only one value. 8. 5Describe an approach to converting a first normal form (1NF) table to second normal form (2NF) table(s). Second normal form applies only to tables with composite primary keys, that is, tables with a primary key composed of two or more columns. A 1NF table with a single column primary key is automatically in at least 2NF. A second normal form (2NF) is a table that is already in 1NF and in which the values in each non-primary-key column can be worked out from the values in all the columns that makes up the primary key.A table in 1NF can be converted into 2NF by removing the columns that can be worked out from only part of the primary key. These columns are placed in a new table along with a copy of the part of the primary key that they can be worked out from. 8. 6Describe the characteristics of a table in second normal form (2NF). Second normal form (2NF) is a table that is already in 1NF and in which the values in each non-primary-key column can only be worked out from the values in all the columns that make up the primary key. 8. Describe what is meant by full functional dependency and describe how this type of dependency relates to 2NF. Provide an example to illustrate your answer. The formal definition of second normal form (2NF) is a table that is in first normal form and every non-primary-key column is fully functionally dependent on the primary key. Full functional dependency indicates that if A and B are columns of a table, B is fully functionally dependent on A, if B is not dependent on any subset of A. If B is dependent on a subset of A, this is referred to as a partial dependency.If a partial dependency exists on the primary key, the table is not in 2NF. The partial dependency must be removed for a table to achieve 2NF. See Section 8. 4 for an example. 8. 8Describe the characteristics of a table in third normal form (3NF). Third normal form (3NF) is a table that is already in 1NF and 2NF, and in which the values in all non-primary-key columns can be worked out from only the primary key (or candidate key) column(s) and no other columns. 8. 9Describe what is meant by transitive dependency and describe how this type of dependency relates to 3NF. Provide an example to illustrate your answer.The formal definition for third normal form (3NF) is a table that is in first and second normal forms and in which no non-primary-key column is transitively dependent on the primary key. Transitive dependency is a type of functional dependency that occurs when a particular type of relationship holds between columns of a table. For example, consider a table with columns A, B, and C. If B is functionally dependent on A (A ? B) and C is functionally dependent on B (B ? C), then C is transitively dependent on A via B (provided that A is not functionally dependent on B or C).If a transitive dependency exists on the primary key, the table is not in 3NF. The transitive dependency must be removed for a table to achieve 3NF. See Section 8. 5 for an example. Chapter 9 Logical Database Design – Step 1- Review questions 9. 1Describe the purpose of a design methodology. A design methodology is a structured approach that uses procedures, techniques, tools, and documentation aids to support and facilitate the process of design. 9. 2Describe the main phases involved in database design. Database design is made up of two main phases: logical and physical database design.Logical database design is the process of constructing a model of the data used in a company based on a specific data model, but independent of a particular DBMS and other physical considerations. In the logical database design phase we build the logical representation of the database, which includes identification of the important e ntities and relationships, and then translate this representation to a set of tables. The logical data model is a source of information for the physical design phase, providing the physical database designer with a vehicle for making tradeoffs that are very important to the design of an efficient database.Physical database design is the process of producing a description of the implementation of the database on secondary storage; it describes the base tables, file organizations, and indexes used to achieve efficient access to the data, and any associated integrity constraints and security restrictions. In the physical database design phase we decide how the logical design is to be physically implemented in the target relational DBMS. This phase allows the designer to make decisions on how the database is to be implemented. Therefore, physical design is tailored to a specific DBMS. . 3Identify important factors in the success of database design. The following are important factors to the success of database design: †¢Work interactively with the users as much as possible. †¢Follow a structured methodology throughout the data modeling process. †¢Employ a data-driven approach. †¢Incorporate structural and integrity considerations into the data models. †¢Use normalization and transaction validation techniques in the methodology. †¢Use diagrams to represent as much of the data models as possible. †¢Use a database design language (DBDL). Build a data dictionary to supplement the data model diagrams. †¢Be willing to repeat steps. 9. 4Discuss the important role played by users in the process of database design. Users play an essential role in confirming that the logical database design is meeting their requirements. Logical database design is made up of two steps and at the end of each step (Steps 1. 9 and 2. 5) users are required to review the design and provide feedback to the designer. Once the logical database design has been ‘signed off’ by the users the designer can continue to the physical d